托福阅读：and表达的一种奇葩逻辑关系

托福阅读and表达的一种奇葩逻辑关系，and这个连词可能是最常见的逻辑连接词之一了，但是它却是最难的逻辑词，因为它具体表达什么逻辑关系，你无法从表面看出来，你必须读懂句子意思才能分析出句中and表达的真正逻辑关系。and可以表达因果逻辑，这点我想大家可能都比较熟悉了。

我们通常看到的and表因果逻辑都是and前是因and后是果，是一种顺承关系，显得比较自然。但是，今天分享的and表达的逻辑关系非常奇葩，有可能你之前从来没认为and还可以这样用：and前表果，and后表因。

直接上例子：TPO 16-2 Development of the Periodic Table

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When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior.

4. What reason does the author provide for the claim that Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer?

○Mendeleyev corrected incorrect information Meyer had proposed.

○Mendeleyev assumed that some information believed to be true about the elements was incorrect.

○Mendeleyev argued that Meyer had not left enough gaps in the periodic table.

○Mendeleyev realized that elements were not ordered by atomic mass in the periodic table.这个题目问的是门捷列夫比梅耶更大胆的原因是什么。正确答案是B，回到原文对应的应该是这句话：Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. 很明显这句话是and连接了两个并列分句，and前就是题目里的结果，而and后就是正确答案B这个原因。所以这句话里，and前为果，and后为因。再来一例：TPO 40-1 Ancient Athens

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Cleisthenes' principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens was to complete the long process of weakening family and clan structures, especially among the aristocrats, and to set in their place locality-based corporations called demes, which became the point of entry for all civic and most religious life in Athens. Out of the demes were created 10 artificial tribes of roughly equal population. From the demes, by either election or selection, came 500 members of a new council, 6,000 jurors for the courts, 10 generals, and hundreds of commissioners. The assembly was sovereign in all matters but in practice delegated its power to subordinate bodies such as the council, which prepared the agenda for the meetings of the assembly, and courts, which took care of most judicial matters. Various committees acted as an executive branch, implementing policies of the assembly and supervising, for instance, the food and water supplies and public buildings. This wide-scale participation by the citizenry in the government distinguished the democratic form of the Athenian polis from other, less liberal forms. 

9. According to paragraph 4, one effect of making the demes the point of entry for civic life was to

A. ensure that every region had the same number of commissioners

B. distribute the population more equally throughout the Athens region

C. limit the number of aristocratic clans

D. reduce the importance of family connections这个题目问的是让demes成为公民生活的入口的结果是什么。正确答案是D，回到原文对应的应该是句话：Cleisthenes' principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens was to complete the long process of weakening family and clan structures, especially among the aristocrats, and to set in their place locality-based corporations called demes, which became the point of entry for all civic and most religious life in Athens. 很明显这句话是and连接了两个并列分句，and后就是题目里的原因--让demes成为公民生活的入口，而and前就是正确答案D这个结果。所以这句话里也是，and前为果，and后为因。通过这两个例子，能得出的结论是：对and的理解，真的需要小心谨慎，因为你很可能会遇到奇葩的情况。题外话：写作老师经常不建议学生用and这个词表逻辑关系，而往往建议学生每次想用and的时候，先想想自己具体想表达什么逻辑，然后用相应逻辑的其他词来替换掉and。这其实就反应了and这个词是在表逻辑关系上其实是非常非常弱的，不能给人对某种逻辑关系的直接感受。

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